The relationship between workplace friendship and perceived job ...

Chien-Yu Chen
Department of Marketing & Logistics Management, Chihlee of Institute of Technology, Banciao City, Taipei, Taiwan

Existing research suggests that leaders/supervisors are the major persons in work organizations to promote employee perception of job significance, which is an intrinsic motivator for employee productivity. However, the literature remains unclear on the relationship between workplace friendship and perceived job significance. Results from a survey of 290 Taiwanese employees indicated that workplace friendship enhanced perceived job significance, and such enhancement did not vary across organizational levels. Our findings suggest intrinsically motivating employees through workplace friendship, which extends extant literature on work role of leaders/supervisors in employee motivation. Further, although lower organizational levels have a disadvantage of objectively less job significance in work organizations, our findings suggest workplace friendship is an effective factor in promoting employee perception of job significance. Thus, organizations can embed the mechanism of workplace friendship into the factors of job design to promote employees' intrinsic motivation and thus job and organizational productivity.

Employee perception of job significance is an intrinsic factor, which has longer-lasting motivational effect and is effective in motivating employees to superior effort and performance (Hackman & Oldham, 1976). In the formation of employee perceptions at work, Salancik and Pfeffer (1978) focused on the influence of workplace social environment, which has to date emphasized the role of leaders/supervisors (e.g. Ferris, Fedor, Rowland & Porac, 1985; Griffin, Bateman, Wayne & Head, 1987; Piccolo & Colquitt, 2006; Purvanova, Bono & Dzieweczynski, 2006). This study aims to examine the role of workplace friendship in employee perception of job significance. Specifically, organizations endeavor to motivate employees for their job and, in turn, for organizational performance. Such motivators may be classified as intrinsic or extrinsic in nature (Hackman & Oldham, 1976). Extrinsic motivators involve the use of factors extrinsic to the work (e.g. financial rewards, work environment) to motivate employees. Intrinsic motivators are designed into the work itself and include job variety, identity, autonomy, feedback and significance (Hackman & Oldham, 1975, 1976; Judge, Bono & Locke, 2000). Because of the following reasons, this study focuses on the intrinsic motivator of job significance, i.e. one's job has an impact on others and/or the working organization (Hackman & Oldham, 1975; Hirschfeld, Schmitt & Bedeian, 2002).

Intrinsic motivators have longer-lasting effect while extrinsic ones secure only temporary compliance (Lin, 2007). Also, they are more effective in motivating superior effort and performance (Hackman & Oldham, 1976). Except job significance, organizations need actual job design/redesign to produce/enhance intrinsic motivators (i.e. variety, identity, autonomy, and feedback), as, for example, was shown by Griffin, Bateman, Wayne, and Head (1987, cited in Piccolo, Greenbaum, Den Hartog & Folger, 2010). Although job significance relates to actual work content (Griffin et al., 1987; Landeweerd & Boumans, 1994; Pratt & Ashforth, 2003), the employee's perception seems to more determine the enhancement or attenuation of job significance (Pratt & Ashforth, 2003, p.311). For example, jobs at lower hierarchical levels have less impact within the organization than those at higher levels (Hollander & Offermann, 1990), giving lower-level employees lower objective job significance. However, a lower-level employee may perceive that the unsatisfactory performance of his/her job will bring trouble to a subsequent worker in the workflow sequence, or harm the performance of his/her work group and influence supervisors' decisions. Thus, the lower-level employee subjectively perceives his/her job has high job significance. Also, in view of the thoroughness of organizational systems, a higher-level employee may not subjectively perceive his/her job has higher job significance. In other words, employees' subjective perceptions can change without actual changes in jobs or external conditions, and thus their job significance changes (i.e. increases or decreases). Therefore, for organizations, an effective way to motivate employees without making changes in jobs or external conditions is to increase employees' perceptions of job significance. Identifying factors that influence employee perception of job significance is important for organizations and has been the effort of much research (e.g. Hochwarter, Zellars, Perrew? & Harrison, 1999; Judge et al., 2000; Kilduff & Brass, 2010; Kraiger, Billings & Isen, 1989; Meglino & Korsgaard, 2007; Morgeson & Humphrey, 2006; Piccolo & Colquitt, 2006; Piccolo et al., 2010; Purvanova et al., 2006). This study joins that research effort and examines the influence of workplace friendship on employee perception of job significance.

Workplace friendship has been positioned within the area of the organization's social environment (e.g. Barry & Crant, 2000; Chadsey & Beyer, 2001; Markiewicz, Devine & Kausilas, 2000). The influence of this social environment on employee perceptions and attitudes has been a central element in organizational science since publication of the Hawthorne studies (Griffin, 1983). Extant literature has examined the influence of social environment within organizations on employee perception of job significance from the perspectives of coworkers and leaders/supervisors. However, the effects of this influence have remained unclear. Some research found that the effect from coworkers was not significant (Ferris et al., 1985) and others found that the coworker effect was significant in certain conditions (Griffin et al., 1987; Salancik & Pfeffer, 1978; White & Mitchell, 1979). The effect of leaders/supervisors on perceived job significance seems to focus on transformational leadership (Piccolo & Colquitt, 2006; Purvanova et al., 2006). The social environment within work organizations includes work relationships and friendships (Barry & Crant, 2000; Berman, West & Richter, 2002; Chadsey & Beyer, 2001; Lincoln & Miller, 1979; Sias & Gallagher, 2009). It is speculated that understanding of coworkers' and leaders'/supervisors' influence on employee perceptions seems to focus on work relationships and overlooks friendships. Such an oversight may contribute to the unclear influence of social environment within organizations. This is because extant literature has presented the social information model to explain the influence of social environment within organizations (Griffin, 1983; Griffin et al., 1987; Salancik & Pfeffer, 1978). However, work relationships emerge from work roles, are compulsory and are regulated in workflow, while friendships emerge from voluntary interactions and have a personal focus (Berman et al., 2002; Lincoln & Miller, 1979; Sias & Gallagher, 2009). Thus, the processing of social information in work environments may differ between work relationships and friendships, as described below.

According to the social information model, an employee's coworkers and leaders/supervisors have interactions with him/her. They will be likely to provide information to him/her and thus affect his/her perception of job characteristics, including job significance (Dean & Brass, 1985; Thomas & Griffin, 1983). The interactions of coworkers and leaders/supervisors essentially emerge from the work role and are work relationships. In terms of information provision and acceptance, we delineate how work relationships differ from friendships. From the standpoint of information provision, literature indicates that the real evaluations/viewpoints may be suppressed in acquaintance (i.e. non-friendship) groups because of norms of politeness (Mikula & Schwinger, 1978). Thus, non-friends in the workplace (i.e. work relationships) will tend to suppress their real viewpoints when they interact with an employee. Leaders/supervisors are also vested with the work role of promoting employee performance. Leaders/supervisors need to motivate employees and thus to elevate employees' perceived job significance by providing information that increases employees' perception of their jobs' impact in the organization (Griffin, 1983; Piccolo & Colquitt, 2006). Understandably, leaders/supervisors will tend to focus on the positive information of employees' jobs and ignore the disadvantages of the jobs. For example, leaders/supervisors will articulate a compelling vision of the future (Jex & Spector, 1989) or create an expectation toward the job (Piccolo & Colquitt, 2006) in order to enhance employee perceptions of jobs.

In contrast, individuals give real information and viewpoints to friends more than to non-friends (i.e. others with only a work relationship) (e.g. Bridge & Baxter, 1992; Sias & Cahill, 1998). Friends are more willing to give negative information and viewpoints (e.g. Sias & Cahill, 1998) because friendship has relational security and, thereby, reduces the fear of negative repercussions (Roloff, 1987). Also, friends offer more explanations (Aboud, 1989), providing more clear and persuasive information and viewpoints for their partners.

From the standpoint of information acceptance, one tolerates disagreements with friends more than with non-friends (Gottman & Parkhurst, 1980). People perceive the critical feedback provided by friends as positive and productive. When non-friends provide critical feedback, people are more likely to perceive them as making assumptions and giving neutral or negative evaluations on the base of personal flaws (Gottman & Parkhurst, 1980). Compared with non-friends, friends are more likely to receive both positive and negative feedback (Knapp, Ellis & Williams, 1980). In other words, one will accept the information/viewpoints from friends more than from non-friends.

Altogether, workplace friends give each other more real job information/viewpoints and accept each other's information/viewpoints more than workplace acquaintances do, i.e. others with only a work relationship. In other words, social environment within work organizations includes work and friendship relationships and these two kinds of relationships differ in terms of the provision and acceptance of information/viewpoints. Thus, the effect of social environment within work organizations on employees' perceived job significance will vary between work relationship and friendship relationship, and this may relate to the unclear influence of social environment, as stated earlier. Extant literature concerning the effect of social environment within organizations on employee perception has mostly examined work relationship with coworkers and leaders/supervisors (Ferris et al., 1985; Griffin et al., 1987; Piccolo & Colquitt, 2006; Purvanova et al., 2006; Salancik & Pfeffer, 1978; White & Mitchell, 1979), and little research if any has examined friendship at work. Therefore, the perspective of workplace friendship is needed to complement the understanding of and to make a clarification of the unclear influence that social environment within organizations has on employees' perceived job significance. In addition, organizational factors such as organizational culture, organizations' social environment and leadership/supervisors have been demonstrated to influence employee perceptions at work (Griffin et al., 1987; Hodge & Anthony, 1988; Piccolo et al., 2010). While organizational culture, organizations' social environment and workplace friendship are related (Nolan&Kupers, 2009), this study is to examine the individual factor of workplace friendship, and the organizational factor of culture is beyond the scope of this study. Therefore, we focus on the rationale that workplace friendship affects employee perception/behavior, and thus leads to perceived job significance.

Plausible arguments from literature are available for speculating the relationship between workplace friendship and perceived job significance. Friendship involves positive and caring feelings for one another (Sias & Cahill, 1998). Friends truly care about each other, and they pay attention to and fulfill each other's needs more than non-friends do (Clark, Mills & Corcoran, 1989). Friends also offer more explanations to their partners (Aboud, 1989). Thus, understandably, workplace friends are more likely than non-friends to pay attention to and be aware of each other's work situations. This suggests that workplace friends would be more aware of the impacts of each other's jobs and thus perceive their jobs' significance more highly.

On the other hand, friends tolerate each other's disagreements more than acquaintances do (Gottman & Parkhurst, 1980). As shown in organizational literature on friendship, workplace friends will exchange negative information/viewpoints that are related to their jobs/organization and are not exchanged in work relationship (Sias & Cahill, 1998; Morrison, 2009a). These negative views may fortify employees' feeling that their jobs have limited impact in the organization and thus workplace friendship may be disadvantageous to employees' perception of job significance. Taken together, the reasoning from organizational literature on friendship indicates that workplace friendship seems to be related to perceived job significance, however, this relation remains unclear.

As stated, we argue that the effect of workplace friendship on perceived job significance remains a gap in organizational literature regarding social environment within organizations. This effect also remains unclear in organizational literature on friendship. From the perspective of workplace friendship, extant literature shows that workplace friendship increases motivation and hence employee and organizational performance (Morrison, 2009b; Song, 2006; Song & Olshfski, 2008). The explanation for the effect of friendship on motivation is rooted in the person factor. That is, friendship increases mutual assistance and support, better communication and coordination, and community building among friends, and, as a result, increases work motivation (e.g. Berman et al, 2002; Song, 2006; Song & Olshfski, 2008). To date, the explanation for the effect of friendship seems not to have been linked with the job factor. This study extends the literature on workplace friendship by proposing a new perspective on the effect of workplace friendship. Namely, workplace friendship is related not only to employee perception of people, but probably to perception of jobs (i.e. in this study, perceived job significance), and thus affects employees' work motivation.

Summarily, in literature on perceived job significance and that on workplace friendship, the relationship between workplace friendship and perceived job significance remains unanswered and unclear. The purpose of this study is to examine this relationship to contribute to the literature on employee perception of job significance by understanding the effect of the friendship among organizational members. This study also contributes to the literature on workplace friendship by understanding the effect of friendship on an intrinsic motivator, i.e. perceived job significance.

In addition, whether the relationship studied will be to a different degree for employees at different organizational levels is noteworthy. This is because the jobs at higher levels in an organizational hierarchy usually have more position power (Hollander & Offermann, 1990). This leads to more impact within the organization and, on the other hand, jobs at lower organizational levels objectively have less position power and, thus, less impact within the organization. With job significance being the job's impact on others and/or the working organization (Hackman & Oldham, 1975; Hirschfeld et al., 2002), employees at lower organizational levels will perceive less job significance because their jobs have less impact in the objective reality. Therefore, the interactional information/views from workplace friendship may play a more significant role in their perception of job significance, indicating an increase in the influence of workplace friendship. We suspect that the relationship of workplace friendship to perceived job significance may differ among employees at different organizational levels. The other purpose of this study is to examine the moderating effect of organizational level on the relationship between workplace friendship and perceived job significance. Understanding this moderating effect responds to the assertion of using an integrated perspective (both objective and social factors; i.e. organizational level is an objective factor and workplace friendship is a social factor) to examine employees' perception of their jobs (Griffin et al., 1987). Extant literature has demonstrated that differences in organizational level are important determinants of perceptions at work (Buelens & Van den Broeck, 2007; Carlopio & Gardner, 1995; Dorer & Mahoney, 2006). Organizational level is a formal, legal, and indispensable factor in and is a defining characteristic of the workplace (Mintzberg, 1975; Rice & Mitchell, 1973). It provides different contextual experiences of the organization (Begley, Lee & Hui, 2006) and is an important factor that influences employee perceptions and attitudes (Begley et al., 2006; Buelens & Van den Broeck, 2007; Carlopio & Gardner, 1995; Mintzberg, 1975; Rice & Mitchell, 1973). Thus, to clarify the relationship between workplace friendship and employee perception of job significance, organizational level will be a moderator worthy of understanding.

References

Aboud, F. E. (1989). Disagreement between friends. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 12, 495-508.

Anderson, J. C., & Gerbing, D. W. (1988). Structural equation modeling in practice: A review and recommended two-step approach. Psychological Bulletin, 103, 411-423.

Arbuckle, J. L. (1999). Amos 4.0 [Computer software]. Chicago: Smallwaters.

Armstrong, J. S., & Overton, T. S. (1977). Estimating nonresponse bias in mail surveys. Journal of Marketing Research, XIV, 396-402.

Barry, B., & Crant, J. M. (2000). Dyadic communication relationships in organizations: An attribution/expectancy approach. Organization Science, 11, 648-664.

Begley, T. M., Lee, C., & Hui, C. (2006). Organizational level as a moderator of the relationship between justice perceptions and work-related reactions. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 27, 705-721.

Bell, R. A., Roloff, M. E., Camp, K. V., & Karol, S. H. (1990). Is it lonely at the top? career success and personal relationships. Journal of Communication, 40, 9-23.

Berman, E. M., West, J. P., & Richter, M. N. (2002). Workplace relations, Friendship patterns and consequences (according to managers). Public Administration Review, 62, 217-230.

Bridge, K, & Baxter, L. A. (1992). Blended relationships: Friends as work associates. Western Journal of Communication, 56, Summer, 200-225.

Buelens, M., & Van den Broeck, H. (2007). An analysis of differences in work motivation between public and private sector organizations. Public Administration Review, 67, 65-74.

Cahill, D. J., & Sias, P. M. (1997). The perceived social costs and importance of seeking emotional support in the workplace: Gender differences and similarities. Communication Research Reports, 14, 231-240.

Carlopio, J., & Gardner, D. (1995). Perceptions of work and workplace: Mediators of the relationship between job level and employee reactions. Journal of Occupational & Organizational Psychology, 68, 321-326.

Carroll, G. R., & Teo, A. C. (1996). On the social networks of managers. Academy of Management Review, 39, 421-440.

Chadsey, J., & Beyer, S. (2001). Social relationships in the workplace. Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews, 7, 128-133.

Chan, A. K.K., Denton, L., & Tsang, A. S.L. (2003). The art of gift giving in China. ??Business Horizons, 46, 47-52.

Clark, M. S., Mills, J. R., & Corcoran, D. M. (1989). Keeping track of needs and inputs of friends and strangers. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 15, 533-542.

Cohen, J, & Cohen, P. (1975). Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence.

Crampton, S. M., & Wagner, J. A. (1994). Percept-percept inflation in micro-organizational research: An investigation of prevalence and effect. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79, 67-76.

Dean, Jr. J. W., & Brass, D. J. (1985). Social interaction and the perception of job characteristics in an organization. Human Relations, 38, 571-582.

Dean, J. W., & Snell, S. A. (1991). Integrated manufacturing and job design, moderating effects of organizational inertia. Academy of Management Journal, 34, 776-804.

Dorer, H., & Mahoney, J. M. (2006). Self-Actualization in the corporate hierarchy. North American Journal of Psychology, 8, 397-409.

Ferris, G. R., Fedor, D. B., Rowland, K. M., & Porac, J. F. (1985). Social influence and sex effects on task performance and task perceptions. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 26, 66-78.

Fritz, J. H. (1997). Men's and Women's organizational peer relationships: A comparison. The Journal of Business Communication, 34, 27-46.

Fuller, J. B., Marler, L. E., & Hester, K. (2006). Promoting felt responsibility for constructive change and proactive behavior: Exploring aspects of an elaborated model of work design. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 27, 1089-1120.

Gottman, M. T., & Parkhurst, J. T. (1980). A developmental theory of friendship and acquaintanceship processes. In Collins, W. A. (eds), Minnesota symposium on child psychology (pp. 197-253). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Grant, A. M. (2008). The significance of task significance, job performance effects, relational mechanisms, and boundary conditions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93, 108-124.

Griffin, R. W. (1983). Objective and social sources of information in task redesign: A field experiment. Administrative Science Quarterly, 28, 184-200.

Griffin, R. W., Bateman, T. S., Wayne, S. J., & Head, T. C. (1987). Objective and social factors as determinants of task perceptions and responses: An integrated perspective and empirical investigation. Academy of Management Journal, 30, 501-523.

Hackman, J. R., & Oldham, G. R. (1975). Development of the job diagnostic survey. Journal of Applied Psychology, 60, 159-170.

Hackman, J. R., & Oldham, G. R. (1976). Motivation through the design of work: Test of a theory. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 16, 250-279.

Herold, D. M., & Parsons, C. K. (1985). Assessing the feedback environment in work organizations, development of the job feedback survey. Journal of Applied Psychology, 70, 290-305.

Hirschfeld, R. R., Schmitt, L. P., & Bedeian, A. G. (2002). Job-content perceptions, performance-reward expectances, and absenteeism among low-wage public-sector clerical employees. Journal of Business & Psychology, 16, 553-564.

Hochwarter, W. A., Zellars, K. L., Perrew?, P. L., & Harrison, A. W. (1999). The interactive role of negative affectivity and job characteristics: Are high-NA employees destined to be unhappy at work? Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 29, 2203-2218.

Hodge, B. J., & Anthony, W. P. (1988). Organization theory. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Hollander, E. P., & Offermann, L. R. (1990). Power and leadership in organizations. American Psychologist, 45, 179-189.

Hui, C., Law, K. S., Chen, N. Y. F., & Tjosvold, D. (2008). The role of co-operation and competition on leader-member exchange and ex-role performance in China. Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources, 46, 133-152.

Ibarra, H. (1993). Personal networks of women and minorities in management: A conceptual framework. Academy of Management Review, 18, 58-87.

Jex, S. M., & Spector, P. E. (1989). The generalizability of social information processing to organizational settings: A summary of two field experiments. Perception and Motor Skills, 69, 883-893.

Judge, T. A., Bono, J. E., & Locke, E. A. (2000). Personality and job satisfaction: The mediating role of job characteristics. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 237-249.

Kilduff, M., & Brass, D. J. (2010). Job design: A social network perspective. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 31, 309-318.

Knapp, M. L., Ellis, D. G., & Williams, B. A. (1980). Perceptions of communication behavior associated with relationship terms. Communication Monograph, 47, 262-278.

Korsgaard, M. A., & Roberson, L. (1995). Procedural justice in performance evaluation, the role of instrumental and non-instrumental voice in performance appraisal discussions. Journal of Management, 21, 657-669.

Kraiger, K., Billings, R. S., & Isen, A. M. (1989). The influence of positive affective states on task perceptions and satisfaction. Organizational Behavior & Human Decision Processes, 44, 12-25.

Kwan, V. S. Y., Bond, M. H., & Singelis, T. M. (1997). Pancultural explanations for life satisfaction: Adding relationship harmony to self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 1038-1051.

Landeweerd, J. A., & Boumans, N. P. G. (1994). The effect of work dimensions and need for autonomy on nurses' work satisfaction and health. Journal of Occupational & Organizational Psychology, 67, 207-217.

Lepak, D.P., Taylor, M. S., Tekleab, A., Marrone, J. A., & Cohen, D. J. (2007). An examination of the use of high-investment human resource systems for core and support employees. Human Resource Management, 46, 223-246.

Lin, H. F. (2007). Effects of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation on employee knowledge sharing intentions. Journal of Information Science, 33, 135-149.

Lincoln, J. R., & Miller, J. (1979). Work and friendship ties in organizations: A comparative analysis of relational networks. Administrative Science Quarterly, 24, 181-199.

Lun, V. M. C., & Bond, M. H. (2006). Achieving relationship harmony in groups and its consequence for group performance. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 9, 195-202.

Mintzberg, H. (1975). The manager's job: Folklore and fact. Harvard Business Review, 53, 49-61.

Mao, H. Y. (2006). The relationship between organizational level and workplace friendship. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 17, 1819-1833.

Mao, H. Y., Chen, C. Y., & Hsieh, T. H. (2009). The relationship between bureaucracy and workplace friendship. Social Behavior and Personality, 37, 255-266.

Markiewicz, D., Devine, I., & Kausilas. (2000). Friendships of woman and men at work: Job satisfaction and resource implications. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 15, 161-184.

Meglino, B. M., & Korsgaard, M. A. (2007). The role of other orientation in reactions to job characteristics. Journal of Management, 33, 57-83.

Mikula G., & Schwinger, T. (1978). Intermember relations and reward allocation, Theoretical considerations of affects. In Brandstatter, H., Davisand, J. H., & Schuler, H. (eds). Dynamics of group decisions. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Morgeson, F. P., & Humphrey, S. E. (2006). The work design questionnaire (WDQ): Developing and validating a comprehensive measure for assessing job design and the nature of work. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 1321-1339.

Morrison, R. L. (2009a). Are women tending and befriending in the workplace? Gender differences in the relationship between workplace friendships and organizational outcomes. Sex Roles, 60, 1-13.

Morrison, R. L. (2009b). The double edged sword: Organizational outcomes of workplace friendships. In Morrison R. L., & Wright, S. L. (eds), Friendships and enemies in organizations: A work psychology perspective (pp. 122-138). London: Palgrave McMillian.

Nielsen, I. K., Jex, S. M., & Adams, G. A. (2000). Development and validation of scores on a two-dimensional workplace friendship scale. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 60, 628-643.

Nolan, T., & Kupers, W. (2009). Organizational climate, organizational culture and workplace relationships. In Morrison R. L., & Wright, S. L. (eds), Friendships and enemies in organizations: A work psychology perspective (pp. 57-77). London: Palgrave McMillian.

O'Reilly III, C. A., Parlette, G. N., & Bloom, J. (1980). Perceptual measures of task characteristics: The biasing effects of differing frames of reference and job attitudes. Academy of Management Journal, 23, 118-131.

Pfeffer, J. (1980). A partial test of the social information processing model of job attitudes. Human relations, 33, 457-476,

Piccolo, R. F., & Colquitt, J. A. (2006). Transformational leadership and job behaviors: The mediating role of core job characteristics. Academy of Management Journal, 49, 327-340.

Piccolo, R. F., Greenbaum, R., Den Hartog, D. D., & Folger, R. (2010). The relationship between ethical leadership and core job characteristics. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 31, 259-278.

Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J., & Podsakoff, S. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 879-903.?

Podsakoff, P. M., & Organ, D. W. (1986). Self-report problems in organizational research, Problems and prospects. Journal of Management, 12, 531-544.?

Pratt, M. G., & Ashforth, B. E. (2003). Fostering meaningfulness in working and at work. In Cameron K. S., Dutton, J. E., & Quion, R. E. (eds), Positive organizational scholarship: Foundations of a new discipline (pp. 309-327). San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler.

Purvanova, R. K, Bono, J. E., & Dzieweczynski, J. (2006). Transformational leadership, job characteristics, and organizational citizenship performance. Human Performance, 19, 1-22.

Rawlins, W. K. (1992). Friendship matters, communication, dialectics, and the life course. New York, Aldine: deGruyter.

Rice, L. E., & Mitchell, T. R. (1973). Structural determinants of individual behavior in organizations. Administrative Science Quarterly, 18, 56-70.

Roloff, M. E. (1987). Communication and reciprocity within intimate relationships. In Roloff, M. E., & Miller, G. R. (eds), Interpersonal processes (pp. 1-46). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Salancik, G. R., & Pfeffer, J. (1978). A social information processing approach to job attitudes and task design. Administrative Science Quarterly, 23, 224-253.

Sias, P. M., & Cahill, D. J. (1998). From coworkers to friends: The development of peer friendships in the workplace. Western Journal of Communication, 62, 273-300.

Sias, P. M., & Gallagher, E. (2009). Developing, maintaining, and disengaging from workplace friendships. In Morrison R. L., & Wright, S. L. (eds), Friendships and enemies in organizations: A work psychology perspective (pp. 78-100). London: Palgrave McMillian.

Sias, P. M., Smith, G., & Avdeyeva, T. (2003). Sex and sex-composition differences and similarities in peer workplace friendship development. Communication Studies, 54, 322-340.

Song, S. H. (2006). Workplace friendship and employees' productivity, LMX theory and the case of the Seoul city government. International Review of Public Administration, 11, 47-58.

Song, S. H., & Olshfski, D. (2008). Friendship at work: A comparative study of work attitudes in Seoul city government and New Jersey state government. Administration and Society, 40, 147-169.

Stanne, M. B., Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (1999). Does competition enhance or inhibit motor performance: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 133-154.

Taber, T. D., Beehr, T. A., & Walsh, J. T. (1985). Relationships between job evaluation ratings and self-ratings of job characteristics. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 35, 27-45.

Thomas, J. (1986). Sources of social information: A longitudinal analysis. Human Relations, 39, 855-870.

Thomas, J., & Griffin, R. (1983). The social information processing model of task design: A review of literature. Academy of Management Review, 8, 672-682.

Tsang, A. W. K. (1999). Chinese communal support networks. International Social Work, 42, 359-371.

Tse, H. H. M., Dasborough, M. T., & Ashkanasy, N. M. (2008). A multi-level analysis of team climate and interpersonal exchange relationships at work. The Leadership Quarterly, 19, 195-211.

Tsukamoto, K., Hayashi, T., Suzuki, T., & Abe, K. (1997). Work-setting factors and reasons for drinking in Japanese male workers: A questionnaire survey. Stress Medicine, 13, 245-250.???

Vigoda-Gadot, E., & Angert, L. (2007). Goal setting theory, job feedback, and OCB, Lessons from a longitudinal study. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 29, 119-128.

White, S. E., & Mitchell, T. (1979). Job enrichment versus social cues: A comparison and competitive test. Journal of Applied Psychology, 64, 1-9.

Winstead, B. A., Derlega, V. J., Montgomery, M. J., & Pilkington, C. (1995). The quality of friendships at work and job satisfaction. Journal of Social and Personal Relationship, 12, 199-215.

Wong, L. Y., Shaw, G. H., & Ng, D. K. C., 2010. Taiwan Chinese managers' personality: is Confucian influence. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 21, 1108-1123.

---

Source: http://jmo.e-contentmanagement.com/archives/vol/18/issue/2/article/4593

rich forever mixtape blow i am legend bret michaels bret michaels the unit bob weston